vision
Guest
I've been reading posts of guys taking anywhere from 10g-40g of fish oils daily. Sounds expensive and annoying considering all I can find is the pill form. Where are you guys getting your fish oil?
TripDog
Bananas
gnc omega complex..whats recomended on the bottle(3 a day)
tattoopierced1
Guest
Sam's club bulk fish oil caps. 1 cap = 1000mg
dhuge67
Active member
vision
Guest
Whats the purpose of taking so much? Where does the other 30g come from? How can you afford any other supplements? j/k I'm a poor college student.
I think I'm going with Puritan's Pride they have a summer special right now.
B5150
Legend
Possible side effects
Fish oil consumption is generally safe and well tolerated, with less adverse effects than other dietary oils [12]. Doses equivalent to three times the FDA maximum safe dosage (which is 3 g EPA/DHA per day) appear to be safe in rats [39]. The primary reported side effect is "fish burps" or a "fishy taste in the mouth," although this can depend on the product, and it is also commonly reported to only be a problem for the first few weeks of fish oil consumption. However there are a few more serious side effects that may be seen with high dose fish oil consumption which may warrant caution.
The first of these is that high doses of fish oil may decrease immune function (in opposition to lower intakes, which may enhance it) [40-42]. While this is beneficial in some autoimmune diseases it is not always desirable. For example, high amounts of fish oil may impair bacterial resistance [43]. Modest doses, in the range of 1-2 g of EPA/DHA daily, do not appear to have a negative impact on immune function over 6 months [40]. This effect may also be avoided with supplemental vitamin E [42]. A second potential problem is increased lipid peroxidation, resulting in an increase in oxidative stress [44-47]. However, this effect can also be remedied with vitamin E [9, 48].
Another possible side effect is an increase in LDL cholesterol and a decrease in HDL cholesterol [49-50]. The first of these effects can be seen with doses as low as 3.6 g/day in humans [49]. However, LDL increase is generally less than 5% [16], and fish oil on balance has a very positive impact on the cardiovascular system. Since fish oil thins the blood, it may also increase the likelihood of bleeding, but it does not appear to do this at lower doses. 2-5 grams a day, even when combined with other blood thinners such as aspirin, do not appear to increase bleeding time, but intake over 20 grams a day will increase bleeding times [16]. Other possible side effects of high or very high dose fish oil consumption reported in animals are increased liver and spleen weight, adverse effects on iron metabolism, and red blood cell deformities [45, 46, 50], but it is doubtful that these are relevant in moderate doses.
What all of this amounts to is, fish oil consumption in a healthy individual should probably be kept within a reasonable range, and additional supplementation with vitamin E is also a good choice. The amount of fish oil one takes should be dependent on both goals and the amount of EPA/DHA present in the fish oil. The optimal range for both safety and effectiveness in most healthy individuals is 1-4 g of EPA/DHA daily, and this amount shouldn't be exceeded without medical supervision. Most fish oils are standardized to 30% EPA/DHA, so this would be about 3-12 one gram caps daily. If the fish oil is standardized to a different amount the dosage should be changed accordingly, for example 2-8 caps of a 50% EPA/DHA product. Most of the benefits (other than possibly the change in body composition, for which there is presently little functional data) can be seen with 1-2 grams of EPA/DHA daily. Most fish oil capsules also contain vitamin E, but if they don't, a vitamin E supplement should be taken also.
1. Simopoulos AP. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother. 2002 Oct;56(8):365-79 [abstract] [medline]
2. Crawford MA, Bloom M, Broadhurst CL, Schmidt WF, Cunnane SC, Galli C, Gehbremeskel K, Linseisen F, Lloyd-Smith J, Parkington J. Evidence for the unique function of docosahexaenoic acid during the evolution of the modern hominid brain. Lipids. 1999;34 Suppl:S39-47 [abstract] [medline]
3. Simopoulos AP. Human requirement for N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Poult Sci. 2000 Jul;79(7):961-70 [abstract] [medline]
4. Morris DH. Methodologic challenges in designing clinical studies to measure differences in the bioequivalence of n-3 fatty acids. Mol Cell Biochem. 2003 Apr;246(1-2):83-90 [medline]
5. Visioli F, Rise P, Barassi MC, Marangoni F, Galli C. Lipids. Dietary intake of fish vs. formulations leads to higher plasma concentrations of n-3 fatty acids. 2003 Apr;38(4):415-8 [abstract] [medline]
6. Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N, Takahashi M, Kim H, Ezaki O. Up-regulation of liver uncoupling protein-2 mRNA by either fish oil feeding or fibrate administration in mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999 Apr 21;257(3):879-85 [medline]
7. Jang IS, Hwang DY, Chae KR, Lee JE, Kim YK, Kang TS, Hwang JH, Lim CH, Huh YB, Cho JS. Role of dietary fat type in the development of adiposity from dietary obesity-susceptible Sprague-Dawley rats. Br J Nutr. 2003 Mar;89(3):429-38 [medline]
8. Nakatani T, Kim HJ, Kaburagi Y, Yasuda K, Ezaki O. A low fish oil inhibits SREBP-1 proteolytic cascade, while a high-fish-oil feeding decreases SREBP-1 mRNA in mice liver: relationship to anti-obesity. J Lipid Res. 2003 Feb;44(2):369-79. Epub 2002 Nov 16 [medline]
9. Kim H, Choi S, Lee HJ, Lee JH, Choi H. J Biochem Mol Biol. Suppression of fatty acid synthase by dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids is mediated by fat itself, not by peroxidative mechanism. 2003 May 31;36(3):258-64 [abstract] [medline]
10. Jen KL, Buison A, Pellizzon M, Ordiz F Jr, Santa Ana L, Brown J. Differential effects of fatty acids and exercise on body weight regulation and metabolism in female Wistar rats. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2003 Jul;228(7):843-9 [medline]
11. Soria A, Chicco A, Eugenia D'Alessandro M, Rossi A, Lombardo YB. Dietary fish oil reverse epididymal tissue adiposity, cell hypertrophy and insulin resistance in dyslipemic sucrose fed rat model small star, filled. J Nutr Biochem. 2002 Apr;13(4):209-218 [medline]
12. Pellizzon M, Buison A, Ordiz F Jr, Santa Ana L, Jen KL. Effects of dietary fatty acids and exercise on body-weight regulation and metabolism in rats. Obes Res. 2002 Sep;10(9):947-55 [medline]
13. Soriguer F, Moreno F, Rojo-Martinez G, Cardona F, Tinahones F, Gomez-Zumaquero JM, Garcia-Fuentes E, Morcillo S. Redistribution of abdominal fat after a period of food restriction in rats is related to the type of dietary fat. Br J Nutr. 2003 Jan;89(1):115-22 [medline]
14. Peyron-Caso E, Quignard-Boulange A, Laromiguiere M, Feing-Kwong-Chan S, Veronese A, Ardouin B, Slama G, Rizkalla SW. Dietary fish oil increases lipid mobilization but does not decrease lipid storage-related enzyme activities in adipose tissue of insulin-resistant, sucrose-fed rats. J Nutr. 2003 Jul;133(7):2239-43 [medline]
15. Cha MC, Jones PJ. Energy restriction dilutes the changes related to dietary fat type in membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition in rats. Metabolism. 2000 Aug;49(8):977-83 [medline]
16. Carroll DN, Roth MT. Ann Pharmacother. Evidence for the cardioprotective effects of omega-3 Fatty acids. 2002 Dec;36(12):1950-6 [medline]
17. Skerrett PJ, Hennekens CH. Consumption of fish and fish oils and decreased risk of stroke. Prev Cardiol. 2003 Winter;6(1):38-41 [medline]
18. Horrocks LA, Yeo YK. Health benefits of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Pharmacol Res. 1999 Sep;40(3):211-25 [medline]
19. Nagata C, Takatsuka N, Shimizu H. Soy and fish oil intake and mortality in a Japanese community. Am J Epidemiol. 2002 Nov 1;156(9):824-31 [medline]
20. Geleijnse JM, Giltay EJ, Grobbee DE, Donders AR, Kok FJ. Blood pressure response to fish oil supplementation: metaregression analysis of randomized trials. J Hypertens. 2002 Aug;20(8):1493-9 [medline]
21. Helland IB, Smith L, Saarem K, Saugstad OD, Drevon CA. Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics. 2003 Jan;111(1):e39-44 [medline]
22. Farkas E, de Wilde MC, Kiliaan AJ, Luiten PG. Systemic effects of dietary n-3 PUFA supplementation accompany changes of CNS parameters in cerebral hypoperfusion. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 Nov;977:77-86 [medline]
23. Puskas LG, Kitajka K, Nyakas C, Barcelo-Coblijn G, Farkas T. Short-term administration of omega 3 fatty acids from fish oil results in increased transthyretin transcription in old rat hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Feb 18;100(4):1580-5. Epub 2003 Feb 03 [medline]
24. Gamoh S, Hashimoto M, Sugioka K, Shahdat Hossain M, Hata N, Misawa Y, Masumura S. Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid improves reference memory-related learning ability in young rats.Neuroscience. 1999;93(1):237-41 [abstract] [medline]
25. Gamoh S, Hashimoto M, Hossain S, Masumura S. Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid improves the performance of radial arm maze task in aged rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2001 Apr;28(4):266-70 [medline]
26. Mamalakis G, Tornaritis M, Kafatos A. Depression and adipose essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2002 Nov;67(5):311-8. [medline]
27. Li H, Liu D, Zhang E. [Effect of fish oil supplementation on fatty acid composition and neurotransmitters of growing rats] Wei Sheng Yan Jiu. 2000 Jan 30;29(1):47-9. [abstract] [medline]
28. Hamazaki T, Sawazaki S, Nagasawa T, Nagao Y, Kanagawa Y, Yazawa K. Lipids. Administration of docosahexaenoic acid influences behavior and plasma catecholamine levels at times of psychological stress. 1999;34 Suppl:S33-7 [abstract] [medline]
29. Stordy BJ. Dark adaptation, motor skills, docosahexaenoic acid, and dyslexia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Jan;71(1 Suppl):323S-6S [medline]
30. Joy CB, Mumby-Croft R, Joy LA. Polyunsaturated fatty acid (fish or evening primrose oil) for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD001257 [abstract] [medline]
31. Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002 Dec;21(6):495-505. [medline]
32. Calder PC. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation: from molecular biology to the clinic. Lipids. 2003 Apr;38(4):343-52 [abstract] [medline]
33. De Vizia B, Raia V, Spano C, Pavlidis C, Coruzzo A, Alessio M. Effect of an 8-month treatment with omega-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic) in patients with cystic fibrosis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2003 Jan-Feb;27(1):52-7 [abstract] [medline]
34. Sun D, Krishnan A, Zaman K, Lawrence R, Bhattacharya A, Fernandes G. Dietary n-3 fatty acids decrease osteoclastogenesis and loss of bone mass in ovariectomized mice. J Bone Miner Res. 2003 Jul;18(7):1206-16. [abstract] [medline]
35. Liu D, Veit HP, Wilson JH, Denbow DM. Long-term supplementation of various dietary lipids alters bone mineral content, mechanical properties and histological characteristics of Japanese quail. Poult Sci. 2003 May;82(5):831-9 [abstract] [medline]
36. Takezaki T, Inoue M, Kataoka H, Ikeda S, Yoshida M, Ohashi Y, Tajima K, Tominaga S. Diet and lung cancer risk from a 14-year population-based prospective study in Japan: with special reference to fish consumption. Nutr Cancer. 2003;45(2):160-7 [medline]
37. Bagga D, Anders KH, Wang HJ, Glaspy JA. Long-chain n-3-to-n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratios in breast adipose tissue from women with and without breast cancer. Nutr Cancer. 2002;42(2):180-5 [medline]
38. Dwivedi C, Muller LA, Goetz-Parten DE, Kasperson K, Mistry VV. Chemopreventive effects of dietary mustard oil on colon tumor development. Cancer Lett. 2003 Jun 30;196(1):29-34 [medline]
39. Morcos NC, Camilo K. Acute and chronic toxicity study of fish oil and garlic combination. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2001 Sep;71(5):306-12 [abstract] [medline]
40. Kew S, Banerjee T, Minihane AM, Finnegan YE, Muggli R, Albers R, Williams CM, Calder PC. Lack of effect of foods enriched with plant- or marine-derived n-3 fatty acids on human immune function. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 May;77(5):1287-95 [medline]
41. Ogita K, Suita S, Taguchi T, Yamanouchi T, Nakamura M, Taguchi S, Nishimoto Y, Uesugi T. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids in rat allogenic small intestinal transplantation. Pediatr Surg Int. 2003 May;19(3):157-61. Epub 2003 Apr 04 [medline]
42. Harbige LS. Fatty acids, the immune response, and autoimmunity: a question of n-6 essentiality and the balance between n-6 and n-3. Lipids. 2003 Apr;38(4):323-41 [abstract] [medline]
43. Irons R, Anderson MJ, Zhang M, Fritsche KL. Dietary fish oil impairs primary host resistance against Listeria monocytogenes more than the immunological memory response. J Nutr. 2003 Apr;133(4):1163-9 [medline]
44. Upadhya S, Kavitha, Prashanthi, Rajyalakshmi, Rohini P, Seetha, Sucharitha M, Upadhya S. Lipid peroxidation in different tissues: effect of high cholesterol and fish oil in the diet. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2002 Oct;46(4):475-81 [abstract] [medline]
45. Miret S, McKie AT, Saiz MP, Bomford A, Mitjavila MT. IRP1 activity and expression are increased in the liver and the spleen of rats fed fish oil-rich diets and are related to oxidative stress. J Nutr. 2003 Apr;133(4):999-1003 [medline]
46. Miret S, Saiz MP, Mitjavila MT. Effects of fish oil- and olive oil-rich diets on iron metabolism and oxidative stress in the rat. Br J Nutr. 2003 Jan;89(1):11-8 [medline]
47. Okumura T, Fujioka Y, Morimoto S, Tsuboi S, Masai M, Tsujino T, Ohyanagi M, Iwasaki T. Eicosapentaenoic acid improves endothelial function in hypertriglyceridemic subjects despite increased lipid oxidizability. Am J Med Sci. 2002 Nov;324(5):247-53
48. Atalay M, Laaksonen DE, Khanna S, Kaliste-Korhonen E, Hanninen O, Sen CK. Vitamin E regulates changes in tissue antioxidants induced by fish oil and acute exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000 Mar;32(3):601-7 [medline]
49. Rivellese AA, Maffettone A, Vessby B, Uusitupa M, Hermansen K, Berglund L, Louheranta A, Meyer BJ, Riccardi G. Effects of dietary saturated, monounsaturated and n-3 fatty acids on fasting lipoproteins, LDL size and post-prandial lipid metabolism in healthy subjects. Atherosclerosis. 2003 Mar;167(1):149-58. [medline]
50. Rabbani PI, Alam HZ, Chirtel SJ, Duvall RE, Jackson RC, Ruffin G. Subchronic toxicity of fish oil concentrates in male and female rats. J Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2001 Jun;47(3):201-12 [abstract] [medline]
Fish oil consumption is generally safe and well tolerated, with less adverse effects than other dietary oils [12]. Doses equivalent to three times the FDA maximum safe dosage (which is 3 g EPA/DHA per day) appear to be safe in rats [39]. The primary reported side effect is "fish burps" or a "fishy taste in the mouth," although this can depend on the product, and it is also commonly reported to only be a problem for the first few weeks of fish oil consumption. However there are a few more serious side effects that may be seen with high dose fish oil consumption which may warrant caution.
The first of these is that high doses of fish oil may decrease immune function (in opposition to lower intakes, which may enhance it) [40-42]. While this is beneficial in some autoimmune diseases it is not always desirable. For example, high amounts of fish oil may impair bacterial resistance [43]. Modest doses, in the range of 1-2 g of EPA/DHA daily, do not appear to have a negative impact on immune function over 6 months [40]. This effect may also be avoided with supplemental vitamin E [42]. A second potential problem is increased lipid peroxidation, resulting in an increase in oxidative stress [44-47]. However, this effect can also be remedied with vitamin E [9, 48].
Another possible side effect is an increase in LDL cholesterol and a decrease in HDL cholesterol [49-50]. The first of these effects can be seen with doses as low as 3.6 g/day in humans [49]. However, LDL increase is generally less than 5% [16], and fish oil on balance has a very positive impact on the cardiovascular system. Since fish oil thins the blood, it may also increase the likelihood of bleeding, but it does not appear to do this at lower doses. 2-5 grams a day, even when combined with other blood thinners such as aspirin, do not appear to increase bleeding time, but intake over 20 grams a day will increase bleeding times [16]. Other possible side effects of high or very high dose fish oil consumption reported in animals are increased liver and spleen weight, adverse effects on iron metabolism, and red blood cell deformities [45, 46, 50], but it is doubtful that these are relevant in moderate doses.
What all of this amounts to is, fish oil consumption in a healthy individual should probably be kept within a reasonable range, and additional supplementation with vitamin E is also a good choice. The amount of fish oil one takes should be dependent on both goals and the amount of EPA/DHA present in the fish oil. The optimal range for both safety and effectiveness in most healthy individuals is 1-4 g of EPA/DHA daily, and this amount shouldn't be exceeded without medical supervision. Most fish oils are standardized to 30% EPA/DHA, so this would be about 3-12 one gram caps daily. If the fish oil is standardized to a different amount the dosage should be changed accordingly, for example 2-8 caps of a 50% EPA/DHA product. Most of the benefits (other than possibly the change in body composition, for which there is presently little functional data) can be seen with 1-2 grams of EPA/DHA daily. Most fish oil capsules also contain vitamin E, but if they don't, a vitamin E supplement should be taken also.
1. Simopoulos AP. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother. 2002 Oct;56(8):365-79 [abstract] [medline]
2. Crawford MA, Bloom M, Broadhurst CL, Schmidt WF, Cunnane SC, Galli C, Gehbremeskel K, Linseisen F, Lloyd-Smith J, Parkington J. Evidence for the unique function of docosahexaenoic acid during the evolution of the modern hominid brain. Lipids. 1999;34 Suppl:S39-47 [abstract] [medline]
3. Simopoulos AP. Human requirement for N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Poult Sci. 2000 Jul;79(7):961-70 [abstract] [medline]
4. Morris DH. Methodologic challenges in designing clinical studies to measure differences in the bioequivalence of n-3 fatty acids. Mol Cell Biochem. 2003 Apr;246(1-2):83-90 [medline]
5. Visioli F, Rise P, Barassi MC, Marangoni F, Galli C. Lipids. Dietary intake of fish vs. formulations leads to higher plasma concentrations of n-3 fatty acids. 2003 Apr;38(4):415-8 [abstract] [medline]
6. Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N, Takahashi M, Kim H, Ezaki O. Up-regulation of liver uncoupling protein-2 mRNA by either fish oil feeding or fibrate administration in mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999 Apr 21;257(3):879-85 [medline]
7. Jang IS, Hwang DY, Chae KR, Lee JE, Kim YK, Kang TS, Hwang JH, Lim CH, Huh YB, Cho JS. Role of dietary fat type in the development of adiposity from dietary obesity-susceptible Sprague-Dawley rats. Br J Nutr. 2003 Mar;89(3):429-38 [medline]
8. Nakatani T, Kim HJ, Kaburagi Y, Yasuda K, Ezaki O. A low fish oil inhibits SREBP-1 proteolytic cascade, while a high-fish-oil feeding decreases SREBP-1 mRNA in mice liver: relationship to anti-obesity. J Lipid Res. 2003 Feb;44(2):369-79. Epub 2002 Nov 16 [medline]
9. Kim H, Choi S, Lee HJ, Lee JH, Choi H. J Biochem Mol Biol. Suppression of fatty acid synthase by dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids is mediated by fat itself, not by peroxidative mechanism. 2003 May 31;36(3):258-64 [abstract] [medline]
10. Jen KL, Buison A, Pellizzon M, Ordiz F Jr, Santa Ana L, Brown J. Differential effects of fatty acids and exercise on body weight regulation and metabolism in female Wistar rats. Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2003 Jul;228(7):843-9 [medline]
11. Soria A, Chicco A, Eugenia D'Alessandro M, Rossi A, Lombardo YB. Dietary fish oil reverse epididymal tissue adiposity, cell hypertrophy and insulin resistance in dyslipemic sucrose fed rat model small star, filled. J Nutr Biochem. 2002 Apr;13(4):209-218 [medline]
12. Pellizzon M, Buison A, Ordiz F Jr, Santa Ana L, Jen KL. Effects of dietary fatty acids and exercise on body-weight regulation and metabolism in rats. Obes Res. 2002 Sep;10(9):947-55 [medline]
13. Soriguer F, Moreno F, Rojo-Martinez G, Cardona F, Tinahones F, Gomez-Zumaquero JM, Garcia-Fuentes E, Morcillo S. Redistribution of abdominal fat after a period of food restriction in rats is related to the type of dietary fat. Br J Nutr. 2003 Jan;89(1):115-22 [medline]
14. Peyron-Caso E, Quignard-Boulange A, Laromiguiere M, Feing-Kwong-Chan S, Veronese A, Ardouin B, Slama G, Rizkalla SW. Dietary fish oil increases lipid mobilization but does not decrease lipid storage-related enzyme activities in adipose tissue of insulin-resistant, sucrose-fed rats. J Nutr. 2003 Jul;133(7):2239-43 [medline]
15. Cha MC, Jones PJ. Energy restriction dilutes the changes related to dietary fat type in membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition in rats. Metabolism. 2000 Aug;49(8):977-83 [medline]
16. Carroll DN, Roth MT. Ann Pharmacother. Evidence for the cardioprotective effects of omega-3 Fatty acids. 2002 Dec;36(12):1950-6 [medline]
17. Skerrett PJ, Hennekens CH. Consumption of fish and fish oils and decreased risk of stroke. Prev Cardiol. 2003 Winter;6(1):38-41 [medline]
18. Horrocks LA, Yeo YK. Health benefits of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Pharmacol Res. 1999 Sep;40(3):211-25 [medline]
19. Nagata C, Takatsuka N, Shimizu H. Soy and fish oil intake and mortality in a Japanese community. Am J Epidemiol. 2002 Nov 1;156(9):824-31 [medline]
20. Geleijnse JM, Giltay EJ, Grobbee DE, Donders AR, Kok FJ. Blood pressure response to fish oil supplementation: metaregression analysis of randomized trials. J Hypertens. 2002 Aug;20(8):1493-9 [medline]
21. Helland IB, Smith L, Saarem K, Saugstad OD, Drevon CA. Maternal supplementation with very-long-chain n-3 fatty acids during pregnancy and lactation augments children's IQ at 4 years of age. Pediatrics. 2003 Jan;111(1):e39-44 [medline]
22. Farkas E, de Wilde MC, Kiliaan AJ, Luiten PG. Systemic effects of dietary n-3 PUFA supplementation accompany changes of CNS parameters in cerebral hypoperfusion. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002 Nov;977:77-86 [medline]
23. Puskas LG, Kitajka K, Nyakas C, Barcelo-Coblijn G, Farkas T. Short-term administration of omega 3 fatty acids from fish oil results in increased transthyretin transcription in old rat hippocampus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Feb 18;100(4):1580-5. Epub 2003 Feb 03 [medline]
24. Gamoh S, Hashimoto M, Sugioka K, Shahdat Hossain M, Hata N, Misawa Y, Masumura S. Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid improves reference memory-related learning ability in young rats.Neuroscience. 1999;93(1):237-41 [abstract] [medline]
25. Gamoh S, Hashimoto M, Hossain S, Masumura S. Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid improves the performance of radial arm maze task in aged rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2001 Apr;28(4):266-70 [medline]
26. Mamalakis G, Tornaritis M, Kafatos A. Depression and adipose essential polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2002 Nov;67(5):311-8. [medline]
27. Li H, Liu D, Zhang E. [Effect of fish oil supplementation on fatty acid composition and neurotransmitters of growing rats] Wei Sheng Yan Jiu. 2000 Jan 30;29(1):47-9. [abstract] [medline]
28. Hamazaki T, Sawazaki S, Nagasawa T, Nagao Y, Kanagawa Y, Yazawa K. Lipids. Administration of docosahexaenoic acid influences behavior and plasma catecholamine levels at times of psychological stress. 1999;34 Suppl:S33-7 [abstract] [medline]
29. Stordy BJ. Dark adaptation, motor skills, docosahexaenoic acid, and dyslexia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Jan;71(1 Suppl):323S-6S [medline]
30. Joy CB, Mumby-Croft R, Joy LA. Polyunsaturated fatty acid (fish or evening primrose oil) for schizophrenia. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2000;(2):CD001257 [abstract] [medline]
31. Simopoulos AP. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J Am Coll Nutr. 2002 Dec;21(6):495-505. [medline]
32. Calder PC. N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammation: from molecular biology to the clinic. Lipids. 2003 Apr;38(4):343-52 [abstract] [medline]
33. De Vizia B, Raia V, Spano C, Pavlidis C, Coruzzo A, Alessio M. Effect of an 8-month treatment with omega-3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic) in patients with cystic fibrosis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 2003 Jan-Feb;27(1):52-7 [abstract] [medline]
34. Sun D, Krishnan A, Zaman K, Lawrence R, Bhattacharya A, Fernandes G. Dietary n-3 fatty acids decrease osteoclastogenesis and loss of bone mass in ovariectomized mice. J Bone Miner Res. 2003 Jul;18(7):1206-16. [abstract] [medline]
35. Liu D, Veit HP, Wilson JH, Denbow DM. Long-term supplementation of various dietary lipids alters bone mineral content, mechanical properties and histological characteristics of Japanese quail. Poult Sci. 2003 May;82(5):831-9 [abstract] [medline]
36. Takezaki T, Inoue M, Kataoka H, Ikeda S, Yoshida M, Ohashi Y, Tajima K, Tominaga S. Diet and lung cancer risk from a 14-year population-based prospective study in Japan: with special reference to fish consumption. Nutr Cancer. 2003;45(2):160-7 [medline]
37. Bagga D, Anders KH, Wang HJ, Glaspy JA. Long-chain n-3-to-n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratios in breast adipose tissue from women with and without breast cancer. Nutr Cancer. 2002;42(2):180-5 [medline]
38. Dwivedi C, Muller LA, Goetz-Parten DE, Kasperson K, Mistry VV. Chemopreventive effects of dietary mustard oil on colon tumor development. Cancer Lett. 2003 Jun 30;196(1):29-34 [medline]
39. Morcos NC, Camilo K. Acute and chronic toxicity study of fish oil and garlic combination. Int J Vitam Nutr Res. 2001 Sep;71(5):306-12 [abstract] [medline]
40. Kew S, Banerjee T, Minihane AM, Finnegan YE, Muggli R, Albers R, Williams CM, Calder PC. Lack of effect of foods enriched with plant- or marine-derived n-3 fatty acids on human immune function. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 May;77(5):1287-95 [medline]
41. Ogita K, Suita S, Taguchi T, Yamanouchi T, Nakamura M, Taguchi S, Nishimoto Y, Uesugi T. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids in rat allogenic small intestinal transplantation. Pediatr Surg Int. 2003 May;19(3):157-61. Epub 2003 Apr 04 [medline]
42. Harbige LS. Fatty acids, the immune response, and autoimmunity: a question of n-6 essentiality and the balance between n-6 and n-3. Lipids. 2003 Apr;38(4):323-41 [abstract] [medline]
43. Irons R, Anderson MJ, Zhang M, Fritsche KL. Dietary fish oil impairs primary host resistance against Listeria monocytogenes more than the immunological memory response. J Nutr. 2003 Apr;133(4):1163-9 [medline]
44. Upadhya S, Kavitha, Prashanthi, Rajyalakshmi, Rohini P, Seetha, Sucharitha M, Upadhya S. Lipid peroxidation in different tissues: effect of high cholesterol and fish oil in the diet. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2002 Oct;46(4):475-81 [abstract] [medline]
45. Miret S, McKie AT, Saiz MP, Bomford A, Mitjavila MT. IRP1 activity and expression are increased in the liver and the spleen of rats fed fish oil-rich diets and are related to oxidative stress. J Nutr. 2003 Apr;133(4):999-1003 [medline]
46. Miret S, Saiz MP, Mitjavila MT. Effects of fish oil- and olive oil-rich diets on iron metabolism and oxidative stress in the rat. Br J Nutr. 2003 Jan;89(1):11-8 [medline]
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frizzlerock
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nordic naturals best ive found
Cellardude
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dhuge67
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It's not a big deal to take up to 40 g a day, because with the animal meat and other fats that I'm getting, it balances it all out. 30-40 g a day is quite common for those trying to get super lean. I wouldn't do it all the time though and my wallet wouldn't be able to handle it.