The Effects of Music on Exercise
Introduction
In a previous review of literature on music and exercise (Kravitz, 1994), a physiological approach was undertaken to investigate the evidence-based findings of different types of music on physical strength, gait, endurance performance, and motor skill acquisition. The current article will review the ergogenic and psychophysiological effects of music and exercise. In addition, impressions and observations on the impact music has had on the fitness industry from some world leaders in exercise are summarized in Side Bar 1. Although many scientific questions about music and exercise have been answered since the previous review, it could be argued that more questions about the mechanisms of music and movement are still unanswered.
Music Promotes Movement: Putting Theory to the Test
Four of the main ways in which music may facilitate exercise performance include, #1) a reduction in the sensation of fatigue, #2) an increase in levels of mental arousal, #3) an improvement of motor coordination, and #4) an increase in relaxation (Szabo, Small, and Leigh, 1999). With the reduction in sensation of fatigue hypothesis (#1), it is felt that music prevents the exerciser from focusing on specific physical sensations of fatigue. It has been proposed that this mechanism is much more effective at lower exercise intensities. At higher intensities, the body’s internal cues of fatigue have a greater influence over the musical fatigue interference (Karageorghis and Terry, 1997). With the increase in levels of arousal theory (#2), the model predicts that altering the mind’s arousal state with music will result in an increased exercise performance, as if the music is ‘psyching’ one up to perform exercise better (Karageorghis and Terry, 1997). The improvement in motor coordination (#3) construct suggests that some types of (rhythmic) music will improve, augment or enhance gross motor tasks, thus improving exercise performance. In the increase in relaxation supposition (#4), the idea is that some of the byproduct molecules of high level exercise, such as acidosis and elevated hormones (which contribute to fatigue), may somehow be dampened by music, thus enhancing performance (Szmedra and Bacharach, 1998).
In testing this last construct, Szmedra and Bacharach had 10 healthy well-trained males complete two 15-minute treadmill trials at 70% of VO2max. In one trial the subjects listened to classical music (Hooked on Classes #3), and the second trial was a control with no music. Because plasma lactate and norepinephrine have been identified as indices of exercise stress, Szmedra and Baccharach measured these components along with heart rate, blood pressure and perceived exertion during the treadmill running. The results of this study showed statistically significant decreases in heart rate, systolic blood pressure, perceived exertion ratings and lactate levels when individuals listened to music during the treadmill test. Though the levels of norepinephrine were slightly lower in the group who listened to music, they were not statistically significant. The authors suggested that music has the ability to interfere with unpleasant stimuli and sensations associated with exercise. Not only can music allow individuals to perceive their exertion to be less, it can influence metabolic (acidosis) and hemodynamic (heart rate and blood pressure) components.
To test some of the other theories how music improves exercise performance, Szabo and colleagues (1999) studied the effects of slow-rhythm and fast-rhythm classical music on progressive cycling exercise to voluntary physical exhaustion. The 12 male and 12 female subjects in the study listened to slow music, fast music, slow to fast music, and fast to slow music with a control of no music. For the slow to fast and fast to slow trials, once a subject’s heart rate reached 70% of maximal reserve, the tempo was adjusted either slow to fast, or fast to slow. It should be noted that symphony music was utilized in this study and that the fast music was two times faster than the slow music. The investigators found that the participants in the slow to fast intervention completed a slightly higher (and statistically significant) exercise workload than all other study conditions. The authors proposed that this study suggests that music may provide a temporary distracting effect to some of the body’s internal cues associated with tiredness. A recent study by Yamasita and colleagues (2006) with 8 males performing a 30-minute submaximal cycle ergometer exercise bout for 30 minutes at 40% VO2max and one at 60% VO2max substantiates this finding. The researchers found that when the subjects listened to self-selected favorite music during the 40% VO2max, they had lower ratings of perceived exertion than the control situation (no music); however, the music did not show this effect during the 60% VO2max trial. Adding to this, North and Hargreaves (2000) suggest that the choice of music needs to provide a sufficient stimulus to be able to sustain and optimize this state of mental and physical arousal.
Practical Application: Research findings suggests that the introduction of music to a workout routine can allow the individual to continue to exercise with a greater efficiency. Individuals can increase workload or time to exhaustion. Despite a lack of understanding of the exact mechanism of this phenomenon, music can act as a motivator for individuals, helping to distract them from uncomfortable physical sensations of exercise (such as acidosis). Having clients listen to their favorite self-selected music choices during challenging exercise is a favorable application fitness professionals have employed for years.:bryce: