[jweave23]

Ok, a previous thread brought this up in heated debate, and I found this point very interesting: what role do squats really play in lean mass gains and training in general? Let me preface this by saying two things:

1. I don't exactly have a concrete opinion either way. If I did I wouldn't be asking for a discussion, lol. I have always been a believer that squats should be done in nearly any resistance training program, and do still believe this, but rather want to clarify why and what actual tangible effects are from incorporating this exericse in training vs. other variables in the training equation when squats are added.

2. If we get into a pissing match or flaming, I will close the thread immediately and delete it. Everyone has a different opinion and I respect that, but please make yours logically based and at least know that if you put a statement of fact out there it may be challenged.

Now, I'm starting HST training and found these statements by Bryan Haycock very interesting considering what I was reading in another thread:

From the HST FAQ Forum, click here

Squats

The problem with squats is that they are a very complicated exercise...By complicated I don't just mean the movement itself, but the number of variables that come into it when you are dealing with all sorts of people with all sorts of abilities and tolerances.

I would say about 85% of the bodybuilding population don't perform squats properly. Why so many? Because they are unaware that they are not doing them correctly. They think they’re doing squats, when in reality they are doing partials, using a lot of low back. Balance is usually over the balls of the feet and the knees come in until they nearly touch. Power lifters and Olympic lifters are much better at this because they are “trained� to squat properly from the very beginning. Olympic lifters, in my opinion, have the most beautiful squatting technique I have seen among all lifters.

There is also the problem of ego. Like bench, everybody seems to think you aren’t cool unless you squat a ton of weight. This puts undue pressure on people to increase the weight beyond their capacity. As a result, their execution of the exercise deteriorates even further.

Finally, one other variable referring specifically to muscle growth is exercise tolerance. People often don’t realize how agonizing and painful a true set of squats can be. I mean, anybody can burn the crap out of their biceps doing concentration curls, or even their chest doing crossovers or pec-deck. But put several hundred pounds on their back and tell them to keep going until the pain is so bad they think they will surely be crushed, die, or both and you are talking about something most people have never experienced…even most casual lifters. Most people simply rack the weight before they really stress the legs. As a result, their squatting weight will be significantly less than it is for their other leg exercises. In other words, they are unable or unwilling (consciously or not) to perform squats in the way necessary to illicit a significant growth stimulus.

So take this group of bad squaters, give them squat advice, and it is anybody’s guess what kind of results they will have. Simply because they don't perform them properly. As a result of that, there will crop up dozens of squatting routines all promising huge gains. Not only that, but squats do not cause whole body growth. They only have the potential to cause growth in those muscle groups directly involved in the squatting movement. However, because squats involve at least half of the body, you can increase overall bodyweight as a result of so much of the body’s musculature being stimulated to grow. Despite Kraemer’s claims that the miniscule spikes in Test and GH as a result of squatting without resting too much in-between sets is responsible for muscle growth, it isn’t entirely true. Otherwise, if these minute spikes in Test and GH had any significant physiological effect, squatting would put hair on your chest. Ok, I’m being a little sarcastic but you get my point.

The anabolic potential of any given squatting routine, be it 20 rep, Breathing squats, Oxford method, Straight sets, Super Slow, HIT, GVT, EDT, or HST, depends on the individual’s level of conditioning in the legs when they begin a squatting routine.

For someone who has been frustrated with their legs and/or squats and hasn’t been squatting properly or diligently, anyone of the above mentioned methods would lead to some size gains… Then that person runs out and tells everybody that they have found the answer to getting legs like Tom Platz. So depending on who’s asking, sure, small increments, or even no increments will work for a lot of people, just as long as they are consistent, and are able to push themselves to the point that they are really causing some trauma to the tissue.

For those who are healthy, squat well, squat relatively frequently, and are somewhat already developed, I recommend HST as indicated (accept for negatives). For those who struggle with squats for one reason or another, simply add leg extensions, and/or leg press, using the HST method.

So, both SD and the bigger increments are going to be necessary for people who have been already training legs properly and are already bigger than they would be without training much. Other people will get by with less simply because they haven’t been training all that well to begin with.

- Bryan

[Kruger]

[RobInKuwait]

I always get in a vicious 3 month cycle with squats. I'll start at a weight I can control and do with good form then I'll gradually increase the weight every week. I won't even realize I'm cheating. Eventually I get much higher weight, but at that point I'll ask someone how far I'm going down, and it turns out I'm doing half squats. Then I'll go back down to a low weight I can control and use good form and do it all over again, telling myself I'm not going to cheat myself anymore.

[jweave23]

Originally Posted by RobInKuwait

I always get in a vicious 3 month cycle with squats. I'll start at a weight I can control and do with good form then I'll gradually increase the weight every week. I won't even realize I'm cheating. Eventually I get much higher weight, but at that point I'll ask someone how far I'm going down, and it turns out I'm doing half squats. Then I'll go back down to a low weight I can control and use good form and do it all over again, telling myself I'm not going to cheat myself anymore.

I do the same thing, I think it happens to most of us. With this HST I just started I have to watch out to keep perfect form, and luckily the first two weeks or so will let me focus on that. It's just seems easy to slightly alter form for weight, even if it's barely noticeable each workout...after about a month or two you really can notice a difference. I see guys at the gym doing it all them time unfortunately (including myself). Someuimes I'll increase tempo throughout the positive part of the exercise, which I'm OK with, but when you notice you're not going low enough or arching too much with the back you know it's time to refocus on form.

[RobInKuwait]

I agree, I think the best way to keep good form is having a training partner. Normally I'm not a big fan of having training partners, but for squats I think its a huge help. They can check your form and make sure youre not cheating yourself, while at the same time making sure you don't die when you hit failure with hundreds of pounds of metal sitting on your back

Originally Posted by jweave23

I do the same thing, I think it happens to most of us. With this HST I just started I have to watch out to keep perfect form, and luckily the first two weeks or so will let me focus on that. It's just seems easy to slightly alter form for weight, even if it's barely noticeable each workout...after about a month or two you really can notice a difference. I see guys at the gym doing it all them time unfortunately (including myself). Sometimes I'll increase tempo throughout the positive part of the exercise, which I'm OK with, but when you notice you're not going low enough or arching too much with the back you know it's time to refocus on form.

[iron addict]

And you can throw tibits up all day and I can counter all day with others that show a contrary opinion. I KNOW how it works in the gym with real trainees though. One thing you seem to keep missing is believing I and others are stating you only need to squat and your upper body will grow without direct work. What is being stated is WHEN squatting the body will will respond MUCH better to the direct work done.

Human Growth Hormone
(HGH)
by Ron Kennedy, M.D., Santa Rosa, California
The full story on aging is as yet incompletely known. Why do we age? What changes us, and what can we do about it to halt, reverse, or at least slow down this process? One factor which is important in the aging process, is the slowing down of the hormonal system, particularly the adrenal glands and the thyroid gland. A program to slow the aging process must take into consideration the function of these two glands or be woefully inadequate. Thyroid extract and DHEA have become mainstays in the treatment of premature aging. Human growth hormone (abbreviated HGH) is produced in the pituitary gland, a tiny gland at the base of the brain which regulates the endocrine glands. The pituitary is the master gland which regulates the entire hormone system. In fact, 40% of the anterior pituitary cells are "somatocytes," cells which make HGH. Based on the number of cells devoted to the job, nature seems to think the production of HGH is critically important.
The Biochemistry of HGH
The biochemistry of HGH is complex. It seems that we all have plenty of HGH, but as we age it is prevented from being released from the pituitary by deficiency of HGH releasing hormone (HGHRH) which is made in the hypothalamus of the brain and by a substance called HGHP, a peptide of seven small amino acids. One day it may be possible to supplement with one or both of these two substances and cause the release of your own HGH; however as yet these are not commercially available.
For people who want to get the full benefit of HGH, it is necessary to raise plasma levels to those enjoyed by the average person in his or her 20s. We need 30-50% of the amount children have and very few adults produce and release this much on his/her own.
Some of the effect of HGH are immediate: increased energy, ability to concentrate, interest and ability in sex; others take a few months to a year to show up: increased aerobic capacity and strength, thickening of hair, tightening of wrinkles and loose skin, decrease in visceral fat; and one takes two years: strengthening of osteoporotic bones.
I prefer to treat illnesses at the most fundamental level and for many of the ailments of "old age" the most fundamental cause is HGH deficiency. The only treatment which fully reverses HGH deficiency is HGH replacement therapy.

HGH is a powerful rejuvenating agent. Unfortunately, it also is super-expensive. Many hormones are exactly the same in animals and humans, but human growth hormone is different from that produced in the pituitary gland of any other animal. Until recent years it had to be harvested in minute quantities from human pituitaries.
In the 1980s, it became possible to synthesize HGH using recombinant DNA techniques, coaxing bacteria to do the job by inserting the proper human gene into their genome. The average cost of one year of therapy is $10,000 which makes this a rich person's therapy. The price may come down in the future, but it will never be cheap.
In addition, HGH is stringently controlled. Because there is a potential for abuse, the legitimate need for HGH must be thoroughly documented. However, most people over age fifty, and many younger than that, can be shown to be in need of HGH for optimal health. In the ideal world, everyone in need of HGH would receive it. Because of economic and other considerations, only a fortunate few will receive it.
Anaerobic Exercise
Now, let us talk about the most powerful way possible to increase growth hormone release: exercise. Vigorous, sustained, anaerobic exercise causes the release of growth hormone, as every serious body builder knows well.
There is one way to block the release of growth hormone, even in the presence of this type of exercise, and that is carbohydrate intake. For maximal effect, body builders consume pure protein, no carbohydrates, and pump iron to exhaustion. (I am not suggesting you do that, only making a point.)
To get the best HGH release, use of the largest muscles in the body is best, namely the lower extremities. A body-builder favorite is to place a heavy barbell on the shoulders and do repeated squats. They do not reach for the sport drink after that because the infusion of carbs wipes out the HGH response.
If you are doing "aerobics," and you want to get into the anaerobic range to reap the benefits of HGH release, it is necessary to press yourself into the painful zone, which is how it feels to be running, bicycling, etc. in an anaerobic condition. The maximum workout time is fifteen to thirty minutes. (This is not something you should try until you have received clearance from your doctor.) After that, if you have done it correctly, you cannot continue, due to exhaustion. Recovery should take five minutes, and at that time your heart should have returned to its resting rate. If it does not, see your doctor.
Also, if you do not feel absolutely wonderful thirty minutes later, see your doctor about possible adrenal weakness. Of course, your doctor must also be aware of these things, and therefore I recommend that you choose your doctor carefully. Not all docs are informed about exercise hormone physiology, since there is no synthetic drug to prescribe for it.
Of course, you must get your doctor's okay before you do these types of strenuous exercises pumping iron and "anaerobic aerobics." You must be certain that your heart can take it, and you must begin slowly and build up. I strongly recommend that you find a trainer to help get you started.
Testosterone Anyone?
You ever see those guys that are built like kites? Big huge lat spreads with backs the size of the Rockies that then taper down to a tiny waist with legs that look like the string on the kite? These guys look ridiculous, but they are all over the gyms. I recall a guy that always wore tank tops and jogging pants to the gym. From up top I would say he could have easily weighed 240lbs at 5'9. We were talking one day and he eeked out, "I weigh 205!" "205", I shouted, "you don't do any legs at all, do you?" We know his answer.
Did you know that doing squats on a big body part like quads flushes your body with added testosterone and growth hormone (1)? You can suddenly start to really pack on pounds by simply adding a compound movement like squats into your program.
Working out your legs hurts. You know it, you've got to suck it up and plunge right in. If you want Priest or Cutler like legs you've got to train them heavy and hard with a decent amount of volume to stimulate all of those motor units. Don't use the "but I don't do steroids" excuse. As of today (April 23rd, 2003) I've been clean for about 6 years. I've got 28-inch thighs on a 5'8 frame. How do I know this is all natural growth? I was scared of doing legs 6 years ago. I never got above 185lbs until I started cranking in some SERIOUS legwork, consistently. As soon as I started I couldn't stop growing!

By: Louie Simmons
Overcoming Plateaus
Your squat is going nowhere. No matter what you do it won’t increase. What can you do? Well first, let’s find the real problem. It can be several things: form, exercise selection, volume, and the development of special strength, i.e., starting, accelerating, eccentric, concentric, reversal, static, and of course absolute.
First, let’s talk about form, Box squatting is a must. Use a box that is slightly below parallel. Sit fully on the box, keeping all muscles tight, most importantly the abs and the obliques. By releasing only the hip muscles you are going from a relaxed state to a dynamic phase. This is one of the best methods of developing absolute strength as well as explosive strength. Lowering the bar produces a great amount of kinetic energy, which is stored in the body, resulting in reversal strength.
For box squatting, the form is the same as regular squatting. Before descending, the glutes must be pushed out to the rear. Because you are going to squat to the rear and not down, this sets up the body for a stretch reflex. Next, push the knees out to the sides. This accomplishes two things: It places much of the stress, or work, on the hips, and it will greatly increase your leverage in the bottom of the squat. By pushing the knees out, you are at least attempting to keep the knee joint in line with the hip joint. In theory, if you can stand up with 1000 pounds while your shoulder, hip, knee, and ankle joints are in line, you could squat to parallel with the same weight if the above joints are kept in line. That is why it is so important to super-arch the back, by keeping the chest up, while in the bottom of a squat.
If you correctly push the glutes out first on the descent, then the head will move last. On the ascending phase, the reverse is true. The head must come up first by pushing the head into the traps. It is then natural for the hips and glutes to follow. Also, never push down with the feet when squatting. You must push out to the sides on the eccentric and concentric phases. That’s why we recommend Chuck Taylor shoes. The feet can be pushed out to the sides without the feet rolling over. When sitting on the box, it is possible, and desirable, for the shins to be past perpendicular. This places all the work on the vital squat muscles. This is impossible with regular squatting.
Train on a box with 50-60% of your best contest squat. A 500 pound squatter would start at 250 and jump 10 pounds a week for 6 weeks. Now the weight is 300 pounds. On week 7 drop back to 250(50%) and a new wave. This is done for 10 sets of 2 reps for 4 weeks. Then drop to 8 sets. This will keep the bar volume relatively the same. The volume will change dramatically when you start the wave again, adding 3 or 4 special exercises that have not been used for a period of time.
The combination of changing special exercises and using short rest periods (about 40 seconds between sets) has proven to be most effective for producing growth hormone. The short rest will cause lactic acid to build up.
When you fight through this discomfort, you will produce the most growth hormone. Also, when you use maximal weights in the same exercise for more than 3 weeks, growth hormone production stops! Wusef Omar, a colleague of the renowned Tudor Bompa, with the help of top exercise physiologists, validated this at York University in Toronto.



Manipulating Hormone ReleaseNaturally with Resistance Training
By Patrick Gamboa B.S.Resistance training is the best natural stimulus for muscular growth. Many weight training programs have been developed over the years in an attempt to modify and manipulate this natural process, each with varying degrees of success. The truth is, the success of a program is often determined by its ability to elicit a specific hormonal response, and little else.Hormones circulating during and after workouts directly affect muscle adaptation. Unfortunately, this is one of the most misunderstood aspects of resistance training. If we as trainers understood the natural anabolic activity in our clients resulting from specific styles of strength training, we could surely design more effective programs enabling our clients to recover faster, adapt and grow more effectively. Let's look at the factors of muscle fiber recruitment, and manipulating serum testosterone and growth hormone levels through resistance training.The average beginning trainee knows that high repetitions (15 repetitions or more) is best for muscular endurance, and is not conducive to gaining muscular mass. The light weight used in high repetition work is not enough to innervate the higher threshold motor units in a muscle. The key is that only muscle fibers activated by the resistance training will respond to increased levels of anabolic hormones. When heavier weights (lower reps) are used in resistance training, more muscle fibers are recruited. The more muscle fibers recruited for an exercise, the greater the extent of remodeling in the entire muscle.There is another reason that light weight and high repetitions are not optimal for stimulating muscular hypertrophy. The majority of the work done in high repetition sets is accomplished by slow-twitch Type I muscle fibers. Type I muscle fibers have a limited ability to hypertrophy. Type IIB fibers are activated when more force is required, and thus have the greatest potential for growth. Heavier weights accomplish more complete activation of the type 11B muscle fibers.According to the size principle, motor units are recruited in order according to their recruitment thresholds and firing rates. Since most muscles contain a range of Type I and Type II fibers, force production can be very low or very high. Therefore, to get to a high-threshold motor unit, all of the motor units below it must be sequentially recruited. Heavy resistance training recruits these high threshold motor units, therefore all the units below it can undergo hormonal adaptations to the stress of the heavy loads.An increase in serum testosterone levels is one result of heavy resistance training. Since testosterone is the primary hormone that interacts with skeletal muscle tissue, it has both direct and indirect effects on muscle tissue. Resistance training utilizing large muscle groups of the lower body (squats, deadlifts) can increase serum testosterone concentrations more than other types of exercises. Using a resistance of 85%-95% of one-rep maximum will also increase testosterone levels more than other resistance loads. Many aspiring novices will attempt to lift near 1 RM loads for one or two repetitions in the hopes of gaining muscle size. Although heavy resistance does innervate high threshold motor units, serum testosterone levels are increased through moderate to high volume of exercises. This is achieved through multiple sets, exercises, and a moderate repetition range (around 10 repetitions), with short rest intervals (between 30 seconds to 1 minute).For gains in muscular size, smaller motor units need to be recruited first in each set of exercise. As the set progresses in intensity, larger units will then be recruited. If the low threshold motor units are inhibited to recruit the high threshold motor units for explosive movements (as in powerlifting), the low threshold units that are not activated will not undergo hormonal adaptations. This is because of the size principle of muscle fiber recruitment. Since motor units are recruited in an orderly fashion (from low threshold to high) and can span a range of muscle fiber types (Type I and Type II), then a moderate range of repetitions must be used to recruit the entire spectrum of fibers. This recruitment pattern allows the full spectrum of fibers to adapt to the training by increasing sensitivity to circulating anabolic hormones.After a muscle has been subjected to intense stress through maximal force contractions over a moderate repetition range, hormones begin the growth process and muscle remodeling. Growth hormone plays a vital role in adapting to the stress of resistance training. Growth hormone levels can be increased through resistance training through high intensity (10 repetitions coupled with heavy resistance) with three sets of each exercise (high total workload) and short, one minute rest periods. Once the levels are elevated, a cascade of events occur; decreased glucose utilization, increased amino acid transport across cell membranes, increased protein synthesis, increased utilization of fatty acids, increased lipolysis (fat breakdown), enhanced immune functions, and a promotion of compensatory renal hypertrophy.An understanding of natural anabolic activity, which occurs in your clients’ bodies, is essential to muscular adaptation, successful recovery, training progression, and ultimately muscular gains. High repetition resistance training (15 repetitions or more) does not innervate high threshold motor units and therefore limits the potential for Type IIB muscle fiber hypertrophy. Powerlifting, which does not allow for sufficient time to activate all motor units in an orderly fashion, diminishes the hormonal adaptations of the entire span of muscle fibers in any given motor unit. Only resistance training that is high in intensity, utilizing 8-10 repetitions, heavy resistance and a maximum of one minute rest between sets will maximize serum testosterone and growth hormone levels, thus allowing for successful recovery, adaptation, and muscular growth.Patrick Gamboa B.S.

[Kruger]

Lmao!!!!

[iron addict]

Bobo, does this mean you think Loius doesn't know shit?

Not putting words in your mouth, just wondering-lol.

Iron Addict

[Kruger]

"I KNOW how it works in the gym with real trainees though"

That part is funny.

[Kruger]

So now we're back to GH causing this overall growth:

Ok then,


Recombinant Growth Hormone and the Athlete
by Nandi


In last month’s issue of Mind and Muscle (M&M #14) we looked at how growth hormone has been used in a number of trials to successfully induce weight loss in obese humans.

In order to better understand how GH affects this weight loss we also discussed in some detail how growth hormone and fat cells interact with one another. In this review of the existing literature, I would like to look at another growing use of recombinant GH: its use to increase athletic performance and increase muscle mass. There are much less data to guide us here than was available in our discussion of GH treatment of obesity. Further, the scientific literature contrasts starkly with the vast number of anecdotal reports of dramatic improvement in athletic performance and muscle mass seen with GH use. The scientific literature paints a rather bleak picture of recombinant GH as an ergogenic aid.

The positive results of some of the obesity trials discussed in Mind & Muscle #14 do suggest that GH might be beneficial to athletes and bodybuilders for weight loss while maintaining lean body mass. In fact, the studies in which recombinant GH has been administered to athletes and healthy young adults have yielded mixed results in terms of changes in strength and body composition, with the data often being difficult to interpret. This will be evident upon looking in detail at the research. For example, Yarasheski et al (1) looked at the effect of 14 days of recombinant GH administration (40 mcg/kg/day) on muscle protein synthesis rates in experienced weight lifters. The authors concluded that short-term GH administration neither increased the fractional rate of skeletal muscle protein synthesis nor did it reduce the rate of whole body protein breakdown despite significantly elevated levels of circulating IGF-1. This is in contrast to research that has shown that GH administration in normal, healthy humans in the postabsorptive state increases net muscle amino acid balance during the period of GH infusion (2). This anabolic effect is evidently short lived, since as mentioned, long-term studies show no increase in muscle mass. Note that in the study by Yarasheski et al protein synthesis/breakdown rates were measured several hours after the last GH injection, not during an infusion as in (2). Nevertheless, IGF-1 levels were still elevated 2 fold above baseline when Yarasheski et al collected their data.

As an aside, in another interesting study (3) that looked at the short-term infusion of a combination of GH and insulin, GH once again appeared to increase protein synthesis, but it also blunted the normal antiproteolytic effects of insulin.

Yarasheski et al (4) conducted another study in which GH was administered to healthy young men in conjunction with a resistance training program. The authors measured a number of parameters: change in body composition; muscle strength improvement; whole body protein turnover; and fractional muscle protein synthesis rate. Compared to placebo, the GH treated group showed a significantly larger increase in fat free mass. However, due to the rapid gain in this mass and the rapid loss after treatment ended, the authors attributed this gain primarily to water retention. There was no difference in strength gains between the GH and placebo treated groups. The GH treated group showed an increase in whole body protein synthesis but no change in fractional skeletal muscle synthesis rate. From this, and the lack of strength gains and muscle circumference, the authors deduce that the net protein accretion was not in the form of skeletal muscle.

Deyssig et al (5) conducted a similar study in trained power athletes. One group was given rhGH at 0.09 U/kgBW day while another was given placebo. Both groups participated in a resistance training program for six weeks. At the end of the study period changes in strength and body composition were measured in both groups. Again there was no difference between the two groups in the parameters measured. The authors concluded that GH treatment had no effect on strength or body composition in highly trained strength athletes.

Crist et al (6) examined the effects of six weeks of rhGH administration (30 – 50 mcg/kg, 3 days per week) in a group of young, highly conditioned (resistance and aerobic trained) men and women. FFM increased more (2.7 kg) and body fat decreased more (1.5 kg) during the GH treatment period than during the six-week placebo treatment period. It is unclear however whether the increase in FFM was due to any accumulation of skeletal muscle (contractile) protein. The study did demonstrate a greater fat loss during the GH period. This is consistent with some of the research presented last issue of M&M showing that GH treatment is capable of promoting fat loss.

In bodybuilders wishing to lower their body fat levels to what is humanly feasible, GH may be a viable option if one is willing to accept the possibility of some unhealthful side effects. In competitive endurance or strength athletes, as opposed to bodybuilders, the detrimental effects of GH use on performance may argue against its use. In a review of the topic (7) Rennie cites recent research conducted at the Danish Institute of Sports Medicine where GH administration to trained athletes actually impaired their performance (8). In these studies healthy endurance trained athletes were unable to complete accustomed cycling tasks after administration of exogenous hGH. The authors suggest that this could be a result of an observed increase in plasma lactate in the GH group compared to placebo. The significantly elevated lactate could result from the inhibition of the enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) by high levels of fatty acids released during GH-stimulated lipolysis. With PDH thus inhibited, pyruvate, produced from the glycolysis of glucose, is unable to enter the mitochondrial citric acid cycle and accumulates instead as lactate. One problem with this theory however, is that despite the increase in plasma free fatty acids observed by the authors, there was no apparent increase in lipid oxidation. The latter would be expected to be required to inhibit PDH. In any case, by whatever mechanism, GH administration clearly adversely affected cycling performance in this experiment.

Although the research described above looked at the acute effects of GH administration on athletic performance, there are chronic effects as well that could be detrimental to the athlete. Insulin resistance is a common side effect of GH use and would be expected to reduce glucose availability to muscle. GH administration also results in the impairment of muscle and liver glycogen storage. These latter effects, limited liver and muscle glycogen storage, could have a serious impact on recovery from strenuous exercise, as well as negatively impact performance itself as a result of decreased glycogen availability. The edema associated with GH administration could also impair athletic performance, as might the arthralgia experienced by many GH users. Rennie even cites the possibility that the fatty acidemia resulting from GH-induced lipolysis could promote cardiac arrhythmia during intense exercise. Although remarks such as this are reminiscent of some of the hyperbole from the medical community regarding anabolic steroids, there is probably some degree of legitimacy to the concerns of Rennie and others who have stressed the potential seriousness of GH related side effects. Athletes should at least be aware that concern exists over such things as potentially fatal as arrhythmia.

In addition to the potentially detrimental derangements in glucose metabolism mentioned above, GH administration in humans has been shown to induce a shift in muscle fiber type from type 2a to 2x (9, 10). The latter has been characterized as the “default� fiber type since the proportion of 2x fibers to type1 and type 2a is relatively high in “couch potatoes� compared to strength and power athletes. Resistance training induces a shift in the opposite direction from type 2x to 2a. During detraining, the muscle fiber type shifts back to 2x. The training induced shift is interpreted as an adaptive mechanism to the increased demands placed upon the muscle. If GH administration induces a shift in muscle fiber type away from the trained state, this could have negative implications for strength and power athletes.

Why, in light of all this negative evidence for any strength or muscle mass increase resulting from exogenous GH, is the bodybuilding literature replete with anecdotal reports of impressive gains in muscle mass and strength? And what motivates athletes to use GH in light of the negative research and side effects? One obvious possibility is that the research results are wrong or incomplete. But assuming they are not for the sake of furthering the discussion, another conceivable explanation for the reported gains in muscle mass are the lipolytic effects of GH discussed above. Bodybuilders could easily be mistaking enhanced definition for an increase in muscle. GH associated water retention could also add to the feeling that mass has increased. Certain anabolic steroids such as Dianabol and Deca Durabolin are notorious for causing water retention. These same drugs also have a reputation for increasing the resistance exercise induced muscle “pump�, contributing to a feeling of increased strength. The water retention from exogenous GH could have the same effect. Additionally, athletes and even researchers have noted that in elite athletes, studies would probably be unable to detect with statistical significance a 1 or 2 percent increase in performance that could result from GH use, and would make all the difference in the world to an elite athlete. Arguing against this is the observation that performances in a number of Olympic events such as shotput, discus, and javelin, particularly among women, have deteriorated since routine testing for anabolic steroids was implemented. It is very likely that these athletes who formerly were heavy users of anabolic steroids are now using rhGH, but it does not seem to be helping their performance. And perhaps the most obvious reason that many athletes and bodybuilders use GH is that the competition is using it.

In summary, despite numerous anecdotal reports to the contrary, to quote from (7),


The results of studies of muscle protein synthesis, body composition, and strength in healthy young to middle aged humans tell a different tale: so far no robust, credible study has been able to show clear effects of either medium to long term rhGH administration, alone or in combination with a variety of training protocols or anabolic steroids, on muscle protein synthesis, mass or strength.

These results, coupled with the possibility that GH use could significantly compromise training and performance, as described in (8), make a fairly strong argument against the use of GH in sport.



References

(1) Yarasheski KE, Zachweija JJ, Angelopoulos TJ, Bier DM Short-term growth hormone treatment does not increase muscle protein synthesis in experienced weight lifters. J Appl Physiol. 1993 Jun;74(6):3073-6.

(2) Fryburg DA, Gelfand RA, Barrett EJ. Growth hormone acutely stimulates forearm muscle protein synthesis in normal humans. Am J Physiol. 1991 Mar;260(3 Pt 1):E499-504

(3) Fryburg DA, Louard RJ, Gerow KE, Gelfand RA, Barrett EJ. Growth hormone stimulates skeletal muscle protein synthesis and antagonizes insulin's antiproteolytic action in humans. Diabetes. 1992 Apr;41(4):424-9

(4) Yarasheski KE, Campbell JA, Smith K, Rennie MJ, Holloszy JO, Bier DM. Effect of growth hormone and resistance exercise on muscle growth in young men. Am J Physiol. 1992 Mar;262(3 Pt 1):E261-7

(5) Deyssig R, Frisch H, Blum WF, Waldhor T. Effect of growth hormone treatment on hormonal parameters, body composition and strength in athletes. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1993 Apr;128(4):313-8.

(6) Crist DM, Peake GT, Egan PA, Waters DL. Body composition response to exogenous GH during training in highly conditioned adults. J Appl Physiol. 1988 Aug;65(2):579-84.

(7) Rennie MJ.Claims for the anabolic effects of growth hormone: a case of the emperor's new clothes? Br J Sports Med. 2003 Apr;37(2):100-5.

(8) Lange KH, Larsson B, Flyvbjerg A, Dall R, Bennekou M, Rasmussen MH, Orskov H, Kjaer M. Acute growth hormone administration causes exaggerated increases in plasma lactate and glycerol during moderate to high intensity bicycling in trained young men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002 Nov;87(11):4966-75.

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